Gender Differences in Academic Performance
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58445/rars.3062Keywords:
Gender Difference, Academic Performance, Parental influence, Stereotype threat, Gender roles, Educational equality, Social role theory, Cultural expectationsAbstract
This paper explores the multifaceted influences shaping gender differences in academic performance, emphasizing the role of social, cultural, and parental factors rather than purely biological explanations. While men and women often demonstrate minor disparities in specific cognitive skills—such as men performing better in spatial tasks and women excelling in verbal fluency—overall academic achievement, including GPA and test scores, shows women consistently outperforming men by modest margins. To understand why, this research reviews evidence on personality traits, parenting styles, and societal expectations that shape learning behaviors and self-concept. Studies indicate that girls are more frequently praised for effort, while boys are recognized for talent, which affects motivation, locus of control, and learning strategies. Parenting also plays a critical role: authoritative versus authoritarian approaches vary in effectiveness across cultures, and values transmitted within families often reinforce gendered career trajectories. Beyond the home, teachers, peers, and media perpetuate stereotypes that can foster stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies, limiting students’ confidence and performance in certain fields, especially STEM. Cross-cultural analyses further reveal how societal norms influence career choices and reinforce unequal opportunities, with collectivist and individualist cultures shaping academic and professional pathways differently. While biological theories highlight innate differences, this paper argues that social role theory and cultural expectations more accurately explain performance gaps and career outcomes. Recognizing these influences underscores the importance of creating educational environments that counteract stereotypes, support equitable parenting practices, and promote inclusivity. By addressing social barriers and reframing gender roles in education, society can better ensure that all students, regardless of gender, are able to realize their full academic and professional potential.
References
Bentley, J. H. (2023). Bentley, Traditions and Encounters (7th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Biggs, J. B. (1978). INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP DIFFERENCES IN STUDY PROCESSES. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 48(3), 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1978.tb03013.x
Campenni, C. E. (1999). Gender Stereotyping of Children’s Toys: A Comparison of Parents and Nonparents. Sex Roles, 40(1/2), 121–138. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018886518834
Cvencek, D., Greenwald, A., & Meltzoff, A. (2012). Balanced Identity Theory Review of Evidence for Implicit Consistency in Social Cognition. 2012.
Czarniawska-Joerges, B., & Wolff, R. (1991). Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs on and off the Organizational Stage. Organization Studies, 12(4), 529–546. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069101200404
Dayioğlu, M., & Türüt-Aşik, S. (2007). Gender differences in academic performance in a large public university in Turkey. Higher Education, 53(2), 255–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-2464-6
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior.
Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69(1), 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719
Finsterwald, M., & Ziegler, A. (2007). Geschlechterrollenstereotype in Schulbuchabbildungen der Grundschule. In P. Ludwig & H. Ludwig (Eds.), Erwartungen in himmelblau und rosarot. (pp. 117–142). Juventa Verlag GmbH.
Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2022). The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation.
Fu, A. S., & Markus, H. R. (2014). My Mother and Me: Why Tiger Mothers Motivate Asian Americans But Not European Americans. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(6), 739–749. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214524992
Ghazvini, S. D., & Khajehpour, M. (2011). Gender differences in factors affecting academic performance of high school students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 1040–1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.236
Gryczkowski, M. R., Jordan, S. S., & Mercer, S. H. (2010). Differential Relations between Mothers’ and Fathers’ Parenting Practices and Child Externalizing Behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(5), 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9326-2
Haines, E. L., Deaux, K., & Lofaro, N. (2016). The Times They Are a-Changing … or Are They Not? A Comparison of Gender Stereotypes, 1983–2014. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316634081
Halari, R., Sharma, T., Hines, M., Andrew, C., Simmons, A., & Kumari, V. (2006). Comparable fMRI activity with differential behavioural performance on mental rotation and overt verbal fluency tasks in healthy men and women. Experimental Brain Research, 169(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-005-0118-7
Hegna, K., & Smette, I. (2017). Parental influence in educational decisions: Young people’s perspectives. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 38(8), 1111–1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2016.1245130
Huang, M., Yi, H., & Rozelle, S. (2023). On the Origins of Gender Gaps in Education: Stereotype as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 4325965). Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4325965
Hyde, J. S. (2016). Sex and cognition: Gender and cognitive functions. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 38, 53–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2016.02.007
Inglis, M., & O’Hagan, S. (2022). Stereotype threat, gender and mathematics attainment: A conceptual replication of Stricker & Ward. PLOS ONE, 17(5), e0267699. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267699
Jussim, L. (1986). Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: A Theoretical and Integrative Review.
Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Knowns and Unknowns, Resolved and Unresolved Controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131–155. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0902_3
Kaul, N. (2021). The Misogyny of Authoritarians in Contemporary Democracies. International Studies Review, 23(4), 1619–1645. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viab028
Kollmayer, M., Schultes, M.-T., Schober, B., Hodosi, T., & Spiel, C. (2018). Parents’ Judgments about the Desirability of Toys for Their Children: Associations with Gender Role Attitudes, Gender-typing of Toys, and Demographics. Sex Roles, 79(5–6), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0882-4
Krampen, G., Effertz, B., Jostock, U., & Müller, B. (1990). Gender differences in personality: Biological and/or psychological? European Journal of Personality, 4(4), 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410040404
Leung, K., Lau, S., Lam, W.-L., & Quarterly, M.-P. (1998). Parenting Styles and Academic Achievement: A Cross-Cultural Study. 1998.
Malach‐Pines, A., & Kaspi‐Baruch, O. (2008). The role of culture and gender in the choice of a career in management. Career Development International, 13(4), 306–319. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810880808
Martin, C. L., Eisenbud, L., & Rose, H. (1995). Children’s Gender-Based Reasoning about Toys.
Master, A. (2021). Gender Stereotypes Influence Children’s STEM Motivation. Child Development Perspectives, 15(3), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12424
Ramakrishnan, A., Sambuco, D., & Jagsi, R. (2014). Women’s Participation in the Medical Profession: Insights from Experiences in Japan, Scandinavia, Russia, and Eastern Europe. Journal of Women’s Health, 23(11), 927–934. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4736
Smetana, J. G. (2017). Current research on parenting styles, dimensions, and beliefs. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.012
Spencer, S. J., Logel, C., & Davies, P. G. (2016). Stereotype Threat. Annual Review of Psychology, 67(1), 415–437. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-073115-103235
Spinath, B., Eckert, C., & Steinmayr, R. (2014). Gender differences in school success: What are the roles of students’ intelligence, personality and motivation? Educational Research, 56(2), 230–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2014.898917
Tansel, A. (1994). Wage employment, earnings and returns to schooling for men and women in Turkey. Economics of Education Review, 13(4), 305–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(05)80054-8
Tindall, T., & Hamil, B. (2004). GENDER DISPARITY IN SCIENCE EDUCATION: THE CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, AND SOLUTIONS. Education, 125(2), 282–295.
Triandis, H. C. (2001). Individualism‐Collectivism and Personality. Journal of Personality, 69(6), 907–924. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.696169
Witt, S. D. (1997). Parental influence on children’s socialization to gender roles. 32.
Wrigley-Asante, C., Ackah, C. G., & Frimpong, L. K. (2023). Gender differences in academic performance of students studying Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subjects at the University of Ghana. SN Social Sciences, 3(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-023-00608-8
Downloads
Posted
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Mindy Bao
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.