A Comparative Study of Biochemical Changes in Cabbage
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58445/rars.3794Keywords:
chemistry, food science, biology, biochemistryAbstract
Fermentation has long been used and shared as a method of food preservation across many cultures, but recent research suggests that it also enhances nutritional value in food and contributes positively to metabolic health. This study will investigate how fermentation compares to steaming and frying in affecting vitamin C retention, glucose concentration, and pH levels in napa cabbage. Using at-home extraction methods, liquid samples were obtained from fermented, fried, and steamed cabbages, with three replicates prepared for each condition. Test strips were used to measure the vitamin C, glucose, and pH levels for all samples. Results indicate that fermentation preserves more vitamin C, reducing the glucose concentration significantly through microbial metabolism, and lowering pH levels due to its organic acid formation. These biochemical changes are relevant because the reduction in glucose and increased acidity help preserve antioxidants and promote better metabolic stability compared to thermal-based cooking methods.
References
(1) Kwon, D. Y.; Chung, K. R.; Lee, C. H.; Kim, S.-H.; Daily, J. W.; Park, S. Scientific Knowledge and Wisdom of Kimchi: A Blessing Korean. Journal of Ethnic Foods 2025, 12 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-025-00269-3.
(2) Petäjä, E.; Myllyniemi, P.; Petäjä, P. Use of Inoculated Lactic Acid Bacteria in Fermenting Sour Cabbage. Fao.org 2025, 9 (1), 37–48.
(3) Rajesh, S.; Rajak, S. Nutritional and Sensory Evaluation of Sauerkraut Prepared by Mixed Fermentation of Lactic Acid Bacteria. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research 2018, 5 (7), 1401–1408.
(4) Carr, A. C.; Maggini, S. Vitamin c and Immune Function. Nutrients 2017, 9 (11), 1211. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9111211.
(5) Jung, H.; Yun, Y.-R.; Hong, S. W.; Shin, S. Association between Kimchi Consumption and Obesity Based on BMI and Abdominal Obesity in Korean Adults: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Health Examinees Study. BMJ Open 2024, 14 (2). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-076650.
(6) Stiemsma, L. T.; Nakamura, R. E.; Nguyen, J. G.; Michels, K. B. Does Consumption of Fermented Foods Modify the Human Gut Microbiota? The Journal of Nutrition 2020, 150 (7). https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxaa077.
(7) An, S.-Y.; Lee, M. S.; Jeon, J. Y.; Ha, E. S.; Kim, T. H.; Yoon, J. Y.; Ok, C.-O.; Lee, H.-K.; Hwang, W.-S.; Choe, S. J.; Han, S. J.; Kim, H. J.; Kim, D. J.; Lee, K.-W. Beneficial Effects of Fresh and Fermented Kimchi in Prediabetic Individuals. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2013, 63 (1-2), 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353583.
(8) Zubaidah, E.; Arum, M. S.; Widyaningsih, T. D.; Rahayu, A. P. Sauerkraut with the Addition of Lactobacillus Casei: Effects of Salt and Sugar Concentrations on Fermentation and Antioxidant Activity. Current Nutrition & Food Science 2020, 16 (8), 1265–1269. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573401316666200217112642.
(9) Sarıtaş, S.; Mondragon, A. C.; Miranda, J. M.; Lombardo, M.; Koch, W.; Raposo, A.; El-Seedi, H. R.; Luiz, J.; Esatbeyoglu, T.; Karav, S.; Witkowska, A. M. The Impact of Fermentation on the Antioxidant Activity of Food Products. Molecules 2024, 29 (16), 3941–3941. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163941.
(10) Samtiya, M.; Aluko, R. E.; Kumar Puniya, A.; Dhewa, T. Enhancing Micronutrients Bioavailability through Fermentation of Plant-Based Foods: A Concise Review. Fermentation 2021, 7 (2), 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation7020063.
(11) Daniel Asfaw Kitessa. Review on Effect of Fermentation on Physicochemical Properties, Anti-Nutritional Factors and Sensory Properties of Cereal-Based Fermented Foods and Beverages. Annals of Microbiology 2024, 74 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13213-024-01763-w.
(12) Swain, M. R.; Anandharaj, M.; Ray, R. C.; Parveen Rani, R. Fermented Fruits and Vegetables of Asia: A Potential Source of Probiotics. Biotechnology Research International 2014, 2014 (1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/250424.
(13) Ayivi, R. D.; Gyawali, R.; Krastanov, A.; Aljaloud, S. O.; Worku, M.; Tahergorabi, R.; Claro da Silva, R.; Ibrahim, S. A. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Food Safety and Human Health Applications. Dairy 2020, 1 (3), 202–232. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy1030015.
(14) Baron, M.; Zuo, B.; Chai, J.; Zhao, J.; Jahan-Mihan, A.; Ochrietor, J.; Arikawa, A. Y. The Effects of Fermented Vegetables on the Gut Microbiota for Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. Gut Microbiome 2024, 5 (1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmb.2024.4.
(15) Cevallos-Fernández, E.; Beltrán-Sinchiguano, E.; Jácome, B.; Quintana, T.; Rivera, N. Fermented Plant-Based Foods and Postbiotics for Glycemic Control—Microbial Biotransformation of Phytochemicals. Molecules 2026, 31 (2), 360. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31020360.
(16) Cha, J.; Kim, Y. B.; Park, S.-E.; Lee, S. H.; Roh, S. W.; Son, H.-S.; Whon, T. W. Does Kimchi Deserve the Status of a Probiotic Food? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 2023, 64 (19), 6512–6525. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2170319.
(17) Chun, A.; Paik, S. J.; Park, J.; Kim, R.; Park, S.; Jung, S. K.; Kim, S. R. Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Yeast-Fermented Cabbage. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 2023, 33 (10), 1329–1336. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2302.02025.
(18) Fijan, S.; Fijan, P.; Wei, L.; Marco, M. L. Health Benefits of Kimchi, Sauerkraut, and Other Fermented Foods of the Genus Brassica. Applied Microbiology 2024, 4 (3), 1165–1176. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol4030079.
(19) Gaudioso, G.; Weil, T.; Marzorati, G.; Solovyev, P.; Bontempo, L.; Franciosi, E.; Bertoldi, L.; Pedrolli, C.; Tuohy, K. M.; Fava, F. Microbial and Metabolic Characterization of Organic Artisanal Sauerkraut Fermentation and Study of Gut Health-Promoting Properties of Sauerkraut Brine. Frontiers in Microbiology 2022, 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.929738.
(20) Hsieh, C.-C.; Liu, Y.-H.; Lin, S.-P.; Santoso, S. P.; Jantama, K.; Tsai, T.-Y.; Hsieh, C.-W.; Cheng, K.-C. Development of High-Glucosinolate-Retaining Lactic-Acid-Bacteria-Co-Fermented Cabbage Products. Fermentation 2024, 10 (12), 635–635. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation10120635.
(21) Jácome-Silva, L. G.; Marín-Iniesta, F.; Tortosa-Díaz, L.; Planes-Muñoz, D.; López-Nicolas, R. Influence of the Type of Sauerkraut Fermentation with Probiotics Strains on Folate Content, Antioxidant Activity and Sensory Analysis. Applied Sciences 2025, 15 (18), 9934–9934. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15189934.
(22) Kim, B. K.; Choi, J. M.; Kang, S. A.; Park, K. Y.; Cho, E. J. Antioxidative Effects of Kimchi under Different Fermentation Stage on Radical-Induced Oxidative Stress. Nutrition Research and Practice 2014, 8 (6), 638–643. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2014.8.6.638.
(23) Kim, J.; Park, H.; Moon, B.; Kim, S. Effect of Fermentation Conditions on Functional Quality of Napa Cabbage Kimchi. Foods 2025, 14 (16), 2826. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14162826.
(24) Knez, E.; Kadac-Czapska, K.; Grembecka, M. Effect of Fermentation on the Nutritional Quality of the Selected Vegetables and Legumes and Their Health Effects. Life 2023, 13 (3), 655. https://doi.org/10.3390/life13030655.
(25) Lee, S.; Choi, Y.; Jeong, H. S.; Lee, J.; Sung, J. Effect of Different Cooking Methods on the Content of Vitamins and True Retention in Selected Vegetables. Food Science and Biotechnology 2017, 27 (2), 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-017-0281-1.
(26) Nugroho, D.; Thinthasit, A.; Surya, E.; Hartati, Y.; Oh, J.-S.; Jang, J.-G.; Benchawattananon, R.; Surya, R. Immunoenhancing and Antioxidant Potentials of Kimchi, an Ethnic Food from Korea, as a Probiotic and Postbiotic Food. Journal of Ethnic Foods 2024, 11 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-024-00232-8.
(27) Ross, P. R.; Morgan, S.; Hill, C. Preservation and Fermentation: Past, Present and Future. International Journal of Food Microbiology 2002, 79 (1-2), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1605(02)00174-5.
(28) Seo, B.; Chung, S. Asian Fermented Plant Foods as Modulators of Gut Microbiota and Host Health: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives—a Narrative Review. Journal of Ethnic Foods 2025, 12 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-025-00298-y.
(29) Stephen, J.; Manoharan, D.; Radhakrishnan, M. Immune Boosting Functional Components of Natural Foods and Its Health Benefits. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition 2023, 5 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-023-00178-5.
(30) Tan, X.; Cui, F.; Wang, D.; Lv, X.; Li, X.; Li, J. Fermented Vegetables: Health Benefits, Defects, and Current Technological Solutions. Foods 2024, 13 (1), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010038.
(31) Valence, F.; Junker, R.; Baty, C.; Rué, O.; Mariadassou, M.; Madec, M. N.; Maillard, M.-B.; Bage, A.-S.; Chuat, V.; Marché, L.; Thierry, A. The Cutting Type of Vegetables Influences the Spontaneous Fermentation Rate. Peer Community Journal 2025, 5 (1). https://doi.org/10.24072/pcjournal.553.
(32) Valero-Cases, E.; Cerdá-Bernad, D.; Pastor, J.-J.; Frutos, M.-J. Non-Dairy Fermented Beverages as Potential Carriers to Ensure Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Bioactive Compounds Arrival to the Gut and Their Health Benefits. Nutrients 2020, 12 (6), 1666. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061666.
(33) Wagner, B. A.; Buettner, G. R. Stability of Aqueous Solutions of Ascorbate for Basic Research and for Intravenous Administration. Advances in Redox Research 2023, 9 (1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arres.2023.100077.
(34) Wei, L.; Marco, M. L. The Fermented Cabbage Metabolome and Its Protection against Cytokine-Induced Intestinal Barrier Disruption of Caco-2 Monolayers. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2025, 91 (1). https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.02234-24.
(35) Yuan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Xiao, L.; Qu, L.; Zhang, X.; Wei, Y. Advancing Insights into Probiotics during Vegetable Fermentation. Foods 2023, 12 (20), 3789. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12203789.
(36) Zabat, M.; Sano, W.; Wurster, J.; Cabral, D.; Belenky, P. Microbial Community Analysis of Sauerkraut Fermentation Reveals a Stable and Rapidly Established Community. Foods 2018, 7 (5), 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7050077.
Downloads
Posted
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Research Archive of Rising Scholars
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
